Volcanoes That Made History
Nautilus · 2026-08-26
Major volcanic eruptions have repeatedly altered Earth's climate and significantly impacted human societies throughout history, a phenomenon studied by volcanologists today. The 1883 Krakatau eruption, which killed over 36,000 people, was the first to be documented globally in near real-time, showcasing how atmospheric sulfur can cause cooling, agricultural failures, and societal shifts. For instance, after Krakatau, non-tropical Northern Hemisphere summer temperatures fell by 0.6 degrees Celsius.
Researchers use ice core data and tree-ring studies to identify past eruptions and their effects. A major, yet unidentified, eruption in 536 is linked to an 18-month haze, climate plummet, failed harvests, and the first documented global plague. The 1257 Samalas eruption in Indonesia, the largest in millennia by sulfur output, caused widespread cooling from 1257 to 1259, leading to famines and potentially contributing to the Mongol Empire's decline. Another eruption around 1345, detected in ice cores and tree-ring data, is hypothesized to have caused cold, wet summers in southern Europe, leading to crop failures and grain imports that brought *Yersinia pestis* (Black Death) with rats, ultimately contributing to the deaths of tens of millions.
The 1783 Laki eruption in Iceland released toxic gases and volcanic particles, causing years of cooling and food shortages in Europe. The 1815 Tambora eruption in Indonesia led to the "year without a summer" (1816) in much of Europe and North America, causing famine, mass emigration, and influencing cultural events like Mary Shelley writing *Frankenstein*. These historical events highlight how volcanic climate shocks, similar to modern rapid climate change, can expose societal vulnerabilities and reshape human history.